整个清朝300年武汉都是中国最大的超一线工商都市，碾压上海香港广州南苏杭

[hankowbund]

1840年鸦片战争前，太平天国前，武汉港是世界上船只最繁忙的港口，武汉是世界上人口最密集的地区。根据法国传教士ABBE HUC和大英百科全书以及美国百科全书的记载，在相对安宁的1840年，武汉有500万-800万人口，是当时世界最大的城市，相当于伦敦和巴黎的总和还多，当时伦敦200万，巴黎100万。当时的北京130-300万，广州100万，上海25万，天津25万，宁波苏州南京杭州各30-50万而已。

太平天国后武汉损失很大，但经过50年休整后又恢复成中国最大的城市。1910年的武汉以一城之力对抗珠三角，长三角，京津冀。历史永远在循环。武汉最大的不可取代的优势是中国发达地区的地理中心，随之而来的交通优势是无敌的。清朝苏州最鼎盛的时候拼不过武汉，因为苏州是两江的口岸，武汉是九省（当时湖北加湖南算一个湖广省）的口岸：两湖两广陕西河南江西云贵川。九省通衢不是随便叫的。

中国皇家海关报告1909年卷，第40页。
当时中国各大城市省区人口估计。

1910年，中国特大城市排名（超过50万人口）：
单位：万人

1.武汉（115）=汉口（82）+武昌（25）+汉阳（8）
2.广州（90）
3.汉口（82）
4.天津（80）
5.北京（70）
6.上海（65）
7.福州（62）
8.重庆（59）

数据来源：

中国皇家海关报告1909年卷，第40页。
china
imperial maritime customs
returns of trade
trade report
1909
part 1
page 40

Journal of the American Asiatic Association, 1914 december page 335-

Far Eastern Review Dec 1914: Our commercial future in China





Hanyang Iron Works was the largest steel factory in China at the time. Ref: Industry_Week_1923 Page 227.





不列颠百科全书：1850年太平天国动乱前武汉人口超五百万

By Encyclopedia Britannica Volume XI 1905 and American Encyclopedia 1885.

Description

This section is from "The American Cyclopaedia", by George Ripley And
Charles A. Dana. Also available from Amazon: The New American Cyclopæ
dia. 16 volumes complete..

Hankow

Hankow , a city of China, in the province of Hupeh, on the Yangtse-kiang,
470 m. W. of Shanghai; pop. estimated at 800,000. The river Han, which hero
falls into the Yangtse, separates Hankow from Hanyang, and opposite both, on
the other bank of the Yangtse, is Wo-chang, the capital of Hupeh. These
three towns are said to have had, before they were almost wholly destroyed
by the Taepings, an aggregate population of 5,000,000. In consequence of its
flourishing trade, Hankow is now again one of the first commercial cities
of the Chinese empire, and in particular the centre of the commerce of the
provinces of Hupeh, Ho-nan, Sechuen, and Kweichow. It is one of the treaty
ports opened to foreign commerce. Two regular lines of steamships connect it
with Shanghai. For the trade with Russia, Hankow is next to Tientsin the
most important place. The imports in 1871 were valued at $187,000, the
exports at $5,112,000. The most important articles of export are tea, China
grass, hemp, tobacco, and rhubarb; the most important articles of import are
Russian cloth and velvets.

The number of vessels entering the port in 1869 was 286, tonnage 185,226;
cleared, 350, tonnage 191,088.


https://chestofbooks.com/reference/Amer ... ankow.html
"chestofbooks.com/reference/American-Cyclopaedia-5/Hankow.html"



武汉港是世界上船只最繁忙的港口
武汉是世界上人口最密集的地区

China: The country and its people. page 262.
Middle Kingdom, Volume 1, By Williams


The PRESIDENT desired to ask Captain Blakiston, as he had travelled over part of the route of the French missionary Huc, whether he found the particulars contained in his work correct.

CAPTAIN BLAKISTON replied it had always been supposed that the Abbe Huc’s descriptions were imaginary. He found them to be quite the reverse. In every point of which he had an opportunity of judging, he found Hue perfectly correct, except with respect to the amount of populations, and everybody knows how difficult it is to estimate that. If you ask a Chinaman how many people there are in a city he will say, “ some myriads.” With regard to the geography of the river, he (Captain Blakiston) mapped it for about 900 miles above where they left the Admiral; and the position of the river has come out pretty much as it is placed in the ordinary maps of China, which are based on those which were drawn up by the Jesuit missionaries. He found very slight errors, indeed. With reference to the naval survey between Hankow and Yo-chow, a distance of 140 miles, the survey had been carried on by “ dead reckoning.” Commander Ward went to Yo-chow without having been able to obtain any astronomical observation. He (Capt. Blakiston) found that in 140 miles of survey by dead reckoning there were only two miles of error, and was glad to record it in proof of the accuracy of which naval surveying is capable in skilful hands.

Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, Volumes 5-6.

[hankowbund]

1900年武汉三市是清朝最大都市。

[hankowbund]

1900年汉口港是海港。

[hankowbund]

不列颠百科全书：1850年太平天国动乱前武汉人口超五百万

By Encyclopedia Britannica Volume XI 1905 and American Encyclopedia 1885.


Description

This section is from "The American Cyclopaedia", by George Ripley And
Charles A. Dana. Also available from Amazon: The New American Cyclopæ
dia. 16 volumes complete..

Hankow

Hankow , a city of China, in the province of Hupeh, on the Yangtse-kiang,
470 m. W. of Shanghai; pop. estimated at 800,000. The river Han, which hero
falls into the Yangtse, separates Hankow from Hanyang, and opposite both, on
the other bank of the Yangtse, is Wo-chang, the capital of Hupeh. These
three towns are said to have had, before they were almost wholly destroyed
by the Taepings, an aggregate population of 5,000,000. In consequence of its
flourishing trade, Hankow is now again one of the first commercial cities
of the Chinese empire, and in particular the centre of the commerce of the
provinces of Hupeh, Ho-nan, Sechuen, and Kweichow. It is one of the treaty
ports opened to foreign commerce. Two regular lines of steamships connect it
with Shanghai. For the trade with Russia, Hankow is next to Tientsin the
most important place. The imports in 1871 were valued at $187,000, the
exports at $5,112,000. The most important articles of export are tea, China
grass, hemp, tobacco, and rhubarb; the most important articles of import are
Russian cloth and velvets.

The number of vessels entering the port in 1869 was 286, tonnage 185,226;
cleared, 350, tonnage 191,088.

http://chestofbooks.com/reference/Ameri ... ankow.html

[hankowbund]

武汉港是世界上船只最繁忙的港口
武汉是世界上人口最密集的地区

China: The country and its people. page 262.
Middle Kingdom, Volume 1, By Williams

Samuel Wells Williams
Born
September 22, 1812
Utica, New York, USA
Died
February 16, 1884 (aged 71)
Occupation
linguist, missionary and Sinologist
Samuel Wells Williams (衛三畏; 22 September 1812 - 16 February 1884) was a linguist, official, missionary and Sinologist from the United States in the early 19th century.

China[edit]

After a year's preparation, on 15 June 1833, just 21, he sailed for China to take charge of the printing press of the American Board of Commissioners for Foreign Missions at Guangdong, China. He arrived at Whampoa, Canton, aboard the Morrison on 25 October 1833.[1]:505 With the death of the pioneering missionary Robert Morrison the next year, he and Elijah Bridgman, who had arrived only three years ahead of Williams, were the only missionaries in the whole of China. He assisted Bridgman in the latter's Chinese Chrestomathy in the Canton Dialect, published in 1842,[2] and Walter Medhurst in completing his English-Chinese Dictionary of 1848, two early works of Chinese lexicography.[1]:506

In 1837 he sailed on the Morrison to Japan. Officially this trip was to return some stranded Japanese sailors, but it was also an unsuccessful attempt to open Japan to American trade.

On November 20, 1845 Williams married Sarah Walworth. From 1848 to 1851 Williams was the editor of The Chinese Repository, a leading Western journal published in China. In 1853 he was attached to Commodore Matthew Calbraith Perry's expedition to Japan as an official interpreter.

In 1855, Williams was appointed Secretary of the United States Legation to China. During his stay in China, he wrote A Tonic Dictionary Of The Chinese Language In The Canton Dialect (英華分韻撮要) in 1856. After years of opposition from the Chinese government, Williams was instrumental in the negotiation of the Treaty of Tientsin, which provided for the toleration of both Chinese and foreign Christians.

In 1860, he was appointed chargé d'affaires for the United States in Beijing. He resigned his position on October 25, 1876, 43 years to the day that he first landed at Guangzhou in 1833. Around 1875, he completed a translation of the Book of Genesis and the Gospel of Matthew into Japanese, but the manuscripts were lost in a fire before they could be published.

He returned to the United States in 1877 and became the first Professor of Chinese language and literature in the United States at Yale University. Williams was nominated as president of the American Bible Society on February 3, 1881. He died on February 16, 1884.

Works[edit]
Williams, Samuel Wells (1848). The Middle Kingdom: a survey of the geography, government, education, social life, arts, religion, etc. of the Chinese Empire and its inhabitants. New York: Wiley and Putnam. Retrieved 8 May 2011.



Évariste Régis Huc, C.M., also known as the Abbé Huc[1] (1813–1860), was a French Catholic priest, Lazarite missionary, and traveller. He became famous for his accounts of Qing-era China, Mongolia (then known as "Tartary"), and especially the then-almost-unknown Tibet in his book Remembrances of a Journey in Tartary, Tibet, and China. He and his companion Joseph Gabet were the first Europeans who had reached Lhasa since Thomas Manning in 1812.

Early life[edit]

Huc was born in Caylus[citation needed][a] in the department of Tarn-et-Garonne, France, on August 1, 1813.[2] In 1837, at age 24, he entered the Congregation of the Mission (then better known as the "Lazarites") at their priory in Paris.[2] He took holy orders as a priest two years later.[2]

In China[edit]

Map of Huc & Gabet's journey through China, Mongolia, and Tibet, from the 2nd edition of Huc's Souvenirs.
Shortly afterwards, he sought the chance to work at the Lazarite mission in China,[2] which had replaced the Jesuits' in 1783. He studied mission work and Chinese at its seminary on Macao under J.G. Perboyre (later martyred and canonized as a saint) for eighteen months.[2]

When his Chinese was considered sufficient, he disguised himself for work on the mainland by growing out his hair, cutting it into the obligatory queue, wearing loose Chinese garments, and dyeing his skin to a yellower shade.[2] He took a ship up the Pearl River to Guangzhou ("Canton") and oversaw a mission in the southern provinces for a time. He then traveled north to Beijing ("Peking"), where he improved his Mandarin.[2]

In Mongolia[edit]

He then settled in the Valley of Black Waters or Heishui, 300 miles (480 km) north of Beijing and just within the borders of Mongolia. There, beyond the Great Wall of China, a large but scattered population of native Christians had taken refuge from the persecutions of the Jiaqing Emperor ("Kia-king") who had added Christianity to China's list of condemned superstitions and cults, threatening missionaries with execution and converts with enslavement to the Muslims of Xinjiang. Huc devoted himself to the study of the dialects and customs of the "Tartars," for whom he translated several religious texts.

Mission to Tibet[edit]

Huc's intention was to travel from China to Lhasa, and from there to India[4] (much as Xuanzang had travelled via Tashkent, Samarkand and Taxila much earlier, in the 7th century).

This work prepared him for his journey to Tibet in 1844 at the instigation of the vicar apostolic of Mongolia. By September 1844 he reached Dolon Nor and made arrangements for his journey. Soon after, accompanied by his fellow-Vincentian, Joseph Gabet, and a young Mongour priest who had embraced Christianity, he set out. To escape attention the party assumed the dress of lamas or priests. Crossing the Yellow River, they advanced into the terrible sandy tract known as the Ordos Desert. After suffering dreadfully from want of water and fuel they entered Gansu, having recrossed the flooded Yellow River. Upon entering Kuen-Kiang-Hien both missionaries fell dreadfully ill and had to put the journey on hold to rest and recover. By January 1845 they reached Tang-Kiul on the boundary. Rather than take an independent four months journey to Lhasa, they waited eight months for a Tibetan embassy expected to return from Peking. Under an intelligent teacher they meanwhile studied the Tibetan language and Buddhist literature. During three months of their stay they resided in the ancient Kunbum Llamasery, which was said to accommodate 4,000 persons. In late September 1845 they joined the returning embassy, which comprised 2,000 men and 3,700 animals.

Crossing the deserts of Koko Nor (Qinghai), they passed the great Koko Nor lake, with its island of contemplative lamas. The missionaries, along with Evariste, engaged in prolonged and thoughtful conversations and meditations with these lamas, contributing to the entirety of their success in China. Lamas of these sorts possessed unimaginable magic power, and blessed them for the hot, wet journey ahead. After a difficult journey across snow-covered mountains, they entered Lhasa on 29 January 1846. Favourably received by the regent, they opened a little chapel. They had begun to establish their mission when Qishan, the Chinese resident interceded. During the First Opium War (1839-1842) Qishan, then the governor of Zhili Province, had entered into negotiations with Captain Charles Elliot, first at Dagu, then at Canton. His action being disapproved, Qishan had been degraded, sentenced to death, reprieved, then sent to Tibet as imperial commissioner. Sensing the potential trouble if Huc and Gabet were to reach India from Tibet, Qishan expelled Gabet and Huc from Lhasa on 26 February 1846 under guard. Following an official inquiry into their motives for being in Tibet, they were officially escorted to Canton in October 1846.

In Guangzhou[edit]

Abbé Gabet returned to Europe in late 1846 in the company of Alexander Johnston, secretary to John Francis Davis, British minister plenipotentiary to China. Davis reported Gabet's exciting information with its strategic significance about Central Asia to Palmerston.[5] Gabet went on to Rio de Janeiro, where he died soon afterwards.

Huc remained at Canton for nearly three years, writing his account of travels in China and Central Asia. His Remembrances of a Journey in Tartary, Tibet, and China, published in Paris in 1850, was well-received.

In Europe[edit]

Huc returned to Europe in poor health in 1852, but he published a sequel to the Remembrances in 1854 and a large work on the entire history of Christianity in China, which came out in 1857 and 1858.

In his last years he took an active role in events in Cochin China[6] He urged Napoléon III to take action, saying, "The Far East will soon be the theater of great events. If the emperor wills, France will be able to play an important and glorious role there."[7] Napoleon took the first steps to establish a French colonial influence in East Asia. He launched a naval expedition in 1858 to punish the Vietnamese people for their mistreatment of French Catholic missionaries and demanded that the Vietnamese cede the port of Tourane and the island of Poulo-Condor, under an old treaty of 1787, which had never been used. This eventually led to a full-out invasion in 1861.

Huc died in Paris on 31 March 1860.

His Remembrances of a Journey in Tartary, Tibet, and China during the Years 1844, 1845, and 1846 (French: «Souvenirs d'un Voyage dans la Tartarie, le Thibet, et la Chine pendant les Années 1844, 1845, et 1846») appeared in Paris in 1850. It was soon published in English, in 1851. A German translation appeared in Leipzig in 1855, followed by Dutch, Spanish, Italian, Swedish, Russian and Czech (Prague, 1887).[8] It was one of the favorite books of the famous writer Jaroslav Hašek).[citation needed] Popular editions followed, including an illustrated, simplified story text for schoolboys. It was abridged and translated by Julie Bedier as High Road in Tartary (1948).

Huc's works are written in a lucid, spicy, picturesque style, securing for them an unusual degree of popularity. However, his esteem for Tibetan manners and religion was not welcomed by his Church: "The late Abbé Huc pointed out the similarities between the Buddhist and Roman Catholic ceremonials with such a naïveté, that, to his surprise, he found his delightful 'Travels in Thibet' placed on the 'Index'."[9]

The Souvenirs is a narrative of a remarkable feat of travel. Huc was unjustly suspected of sensationalizing his travels. Although a careful observer, he was by no means a practical geographer. The record of his travels lacks precise scientific data. The authenticity of Huc's journey was questioned by the Russian traveller, Nikolai Przhevalsky, but vindicated by others.[10] Of course, both Huc and Gabet had written brief reports of their journey from 1847 on for the "Annales de la Propagation de la Foi" and the "Annales de la Congrégation de la Mission". More recently, Huc's writings have been criticized for presenting 'facts' negatively because of his heavy western-European/Christian view point. Retrospectively, his writings could be considered in the same category as Truman Capote's "In Cold Blood", aka a nonfiction novel.

The sequel, The Chinese Empire (1854) is a more comprehensive compendium of the religion, laws, usages and institutions of China,[11] followed by a multi-volume history of Christianity in China and Central Asia. Huc gives many accounts of Chinese culture, and religion, including Christianity throughout the history of China. He also goes into detail about the three traditional Chinese religions, Daoism, Buddhism and Confucianism. In his attempt to spread Christianity he remarks on the status of women in China. During this time period women were expected to act in certain ways. As a married woman, you were expected to be a shadow of the man in the house. Being in this situation of social bondage inspired many women to convert to Christianity, which provided education and a social community.[12]

At this time in China all religions were tolerated but there were three principal religions. Confucianism which is also known as "The Doctrine of the Lettered". Confucius is regarded as the patriarch and reformer of the religion which gives its followers a positive outlook on life. The second religion is known as Taoism or the Primitive religion. Taught by a contemporary of Confucius Lao-tze this religion is similar to Confucianism. The priests and priestesses are sworn to celibacy and practice things such as magic, astrology, and necromancy. The last religion is Buddhism. This religion follows the teachings of the Buddha and ends ones suffering though his understanding of the four noble truths.

According to Huc, there is a Chinese law called Ta-tsing Luli. This is divided into seven portions as follows: General Laws, Civil Laws, Fiscal Laws, Ritual Laws, Military Laws, Criminal Laws, and laws concerning public works.

At the time of Huc it was general to regard Asia and China specifically as the classic ground of despotism and slavery, and Chinese people were considered as absolutely submissive to the authorities. However, while travelling through the Empire he came to the conclusion that religion, customs and prejudices opposed invincible obstacles to the free exercise of people’s will.

As a frequent symbol of Chinese people being opposed to the Government, he mentions principal gates with a large assortment of old boots. They appeared in almost every town of the Empire and were a clear visual sign of public’s opinion opposed to Government’s. Principal gates were also important monuments to show how many good Mandarins the country actually had despite calumnious reports and injustices experienced by many of them because of the Government’s influence.
Huc's letters and memoirs of travel appeared in the Annales de la propagation de la foi and Annales de la Congrégation de la Mission, (1847–1850). Collected and annotated edition of 76 letters by Gabet and 98 by Huc in Jacqueline Thevenet, Joseph Gabet, Évariste Huc: Lettres de Chine et d'ailleurs, 1835–1860, Paris, Les Indes Savants (2005) ISBN 2-84654-084-5
Souvenirs d'un voyage dans la Tartarie, le Thibet, et la Chine pendant les années 1844, 1845 et 1846, 2 vols., Paris, A. LeClère & Co. (1850); reprint (1992); Édition électronique intégrale du livre du Père Huc sur le site de l'Université du Québec à Chicoutimi (in French) Omnibus (2001) ISBN 81-206-0802-X. English translation, W. Hazlitt, Travels in Tartary, Thibet and China, 1844–1846, 2 volumes. London, Office of the National Illustrated Library, n. d. (1851), 100 engravings on wood. ISBN 0-486-25438-0. Chicago 1898; reprint (1998) ISBN 81-206-1379-1.
Authorized English tr. Mrs. Percy Sinnett, A Journey through Tartary, Thibet, and China during the Years 1844, 1845 and 1846, 2 vols., New York, D. Appleton (1852); London, Longmans (1859). ISBN 1-4021-7879-4.
English translation, tr. Charles de Salis, Lamas of the Western Heavens. Rugby (U.K.); The Folio Society (1982). Vol 2 of Souvenirs d'un voyage..., with summaries of vol 1, and of L'Empire Chinois. Introduction by John Keay. 46 engravings from the 1851 English edition. ISBN 2-7242-1417-X.

L'Empire Chinois 2 vols., Paris (1854); The Chinese Empire, forming a sequel to recollections of a journey through Tartary and Thibet. tr. Mrs. Percy Sinnett. London, Longmans (1855).
Christianity in China, Tartary and Thibet, 3 vols., London, Longman, etc., (1857—1858). Le Christianisme en Chine, 4 vols., Paris (1857—1858).
Huc, Evariste Regis (1855). The Chinese Empire: forming a sequel to the work entitled "Recollections of a journey (Vol. 1) London: Longman, Brown, Green,and Longmans. -University of Hong Kong Libraries, Digital Initiatives, China Through Western Eyes
Huc, Evariste Regis (1855). The Chinese Empire: forming a sequel to the work entitled "Recollections of a journey (Vol.2) London: Longman, Brown, Green,and Longmans. -University of Hong Kong Libraries, Digital Initiatives, China Through Western Eyes
Huc, Evariste Regis (1857–58). Christianity in China, Tartary and Thibet (Vol. 1) London: Longman, Brown, Green. -University of Hong Kong Libraries, Digital Initiatives, China Through Western Eyes
Huc, Evariste Regis (1857–58). Christianity in China, Tartary and Thibet (Vol. 2) London: Longman, Brown, Green. -University of Hong Kong Libraries, Digital Initiatives, China Through Western Eyes
Huc, Evariste Regis (1857–58). Christianity in China, Tartary and Thibet (Vol.3) London: Longman, Brown, Green. -University of Hong Kong Libraries, Digital Initiatives, China Through Western Eyes



The PRESIDENT desired to ask Captain Blakiston, as he had travelled over part of the route of the French missionary Huc, whether he found the particulars contained in his work correct.

CAPTAIN BLAKISTON replied it had always been supposed that the Abbe Huc’s descriptions were imaginary. He found them to be quite the reverse. In every point of which he had an opportunity of judging, he found Hue perfectly correct, except with respect to the amount of populations, and everybody knows how difficult it is to estimate that. If you ask a Chinaman how many people there are in a city he will say, “ some myriads.” With regard to the geography of the river, he (Captain Blakiston) mapped it for about 900 miles above where they left the Admiral; and the position of the river has come out pretty much as it is placed in the ordinary maps of China, which are based on those which were drawn up by the Jesuit missionaries. He found very slight errors, indeed. With reference to the naval survey between Hankow and Yo-chow, a distance of 140 miles, the survey had been carried on by “ dead reckoning.” Commander Ward went to Yo-chow without having been able to obtain any astronomical observation. He (Capt. Blakiston) found that in 140 miles of survey by dead reckoning there were only two miles of error, and was glad to record it in proof of the accuracy of which naval surveying is capable in skilful hands.

Proceedings of the Royal Geographical Society, Volumes 5-6.

[hankowbund]

[日]斯波义信：（汉口）19世纪初发展成为拥有 100万人口的商业中心

斯波义信对汉口模式的发展道路有过精当的描述 ，称: “1465 年 ，因湖北省汉水下游航路改变而产生了名曰汉口的小市，1497年升格为镇，此后被常设为镇 。19世纪初发展成为拥有 100万人口 ，控制由两湖的全部、 江西、 河南 、陕西的各一部组成的商业圈———‘长江中游大地区’———的中枢首府;而且成长为集地区首府、大城市、地方城市三重商圈的交易功能于一体，各种功能兼而备之的商业中心。这一地域的成长，一定程度上仰赖于地域内特产化商品的输出和经过汉口的商品交易，而控制流通大宗商品的山西、新安、江西、广东、宁波等有实力的外来客 帮商人集团。新安、江浙商人主要控制米的经销，江南商人主营木材，广东、山陕 商人则为茶，而山陕商人则掌握着金融业; 与此相对而言，当地商人则经营省内外的木材，控制交通业及本地产的米、茶等专营项目。当初的汉口，由客帮确立其垄 断性的霸主地位;但在19世纪中叶，与力求摆脱当时产生的政治、财政危机的动 向相呼应，促进超越地方主义的地区整合潮流应运而生。汉口市的客帮、本帮超越派别利益，形成了同业行会联合体，并被当局赋予实质性的市政运营的主动权，向 包括全地区范围内自治的目标迈出了划时代的前进步伐。”

[日]斯波义信著，方健、何忠礼译:《宋代江南经济史研究》，江苏人民出版社2001年 版，第29-30页。

斯波义信：《宋代江南经济史研究》
来源：清史所　作者：清史所　点击数：6374　更新时间：2006-6-18

方健、何忠礼译 南京：江苏人民出版社，2000年

吴承明

斯波义信教授是国际上享有盛名的汉学家，也是当代最有影响的宋史专家之一。1968年他的《宋代商业史》问世，一举成名，遂即被译为英文版和中文版。此后二十年，斯波先生又在一系列研究中国经济史著述的基础上，于1988年出版这部《宋代江南经济史研究》巨著。本书视野旷阔，广征博考，蔚为大观，而持论极为严谨，凡肯定、不能肯定与怀疑者必详究之。我以“博謇”二字仰先生治学风范，以为本书实为汉学界一代珍葩。而本书的最大贡献，乃在以新的理论和新的方法，对宋代经济宏观和微观许多问题，提出创新的见解；读之如入百花园中，流连思考而忘返焉。
　　宋代上承汉唐，下启明清，在经济及制度上是古代与近世中国的一个历史转折期，一向为中外学者所重视。宋代国土日蹙，政治积弱，而经济迅速成长，市场空前繁荣，文化以至科技之昌盛尤引人注目。是以对宋代经济发展程度，其在中国历史上地位如何，例多考究。评价高者有宋代“农业革命”、“商业革命”之说，亦有偏荣一隅，南宋即告衰退之论。
　　本书对宋代经济各项史实辩证甚详，论其大势，则以为宋之初，江南地区经济尚处于开拓阶段，长江三角洲的核心地带（即下三角洲）之土地利用仍相当粗放。殆北宋后期，兴起大规模水利工程，于北宋末臻于鼎盛。同时，人口之由长江三角洲北、西、南高地、丘陵地向低湿地、核心地带之移居，亦在北宋末显现成效。核心地带的开发，使江南稻米的平均亩产量显著提高。南宋时期，定居点移动趋势继续进行，江南水利网之格局大体形成，稻田耕作技术有较大改进，但仍有若干粗放耕作地带，江南农田的充分开发，要到明代中叶始告完成。商业方面，北宋中期，商人长距离贩运代替了军事后勤运输，加以城市化兴起，商业发展迅速。国都南迁杭州后，有利于降低交易费用，人口集中，商业鼎盛。大城市中批发、零售以及金融等分业已颇为完整，农村集镇之扩张尤为迅速。已略具明代中叶之规模。惟南宋末，大体在开禧战败后，财政危机，公田法之实施实际提高农民负担，江南经济开始步入衰退。
　　斯波先生一再谦称他的研究是初步的，有些论点是间接证据，有些尚难确证。在本书序章“考察的缘起”节中，他曾将宋代经济成就与16世纪（明代中叶）中国另一个经济大发展时期相对照。他认为，宋代的商业革命确属质的变化，可以确证。农业方面，若水利建设、二熟制之推行、优良作物和相关技术的改进等，宋代已“古典的”完成了。至于宋代与“16世纪同样的农业革命、商业革命”相比，是否匹敌，以及交通、动力源等，尚有待实证云。
　　以上可见斯波先生立论极其谨慎，并具启迪思考之意，读者寻骥探索，固不必剧作断语也。而我以为更能启发学者，使思路盎然者，乃是本书的方法论。不过，这是我披阅本书后自己的体会，其有违斯波先生本意之处，责自在我。
　　结构主义原属社会学研究方法，六七十年代盛行于西方经济学界，基本上替代了过去线性增长概念。在史学上，经法国年鉴学派倡导，五十年代由布罗代尔（Fernand Braudel）大加发展，蔚然成为结构主义历史观。它有总体观察（holistic perspective）和多元时间、多层面分析的特点，适合经济史研究。斯波先生在本书中采用了这种新的历史观，但并非沿袭布罗代尔研究“地中海世界”的范本，而是按照宋史的具体情况，取其精华，并有创造。
　　首先，他在运用结构主义历史观时，并不否定传统的历史主义的研究方法。他盛赞并继承前辈历史主义者研究宋史的成果，发扬“博搜史实，积累正确知识”的传统，贯彻实证主义原则，甚至亦不时采用历史主义的叙事手法，因为这种手法适于概括复杂的事实和作比较研究。我觉得这是完全正确的，无论何种历史观，考证和实证的方法是无可或阙的。
　　其次，布罗代尔的体系是由长时段的构造史（自然地理环境和历史心态史）、中时段的动态史（社会经济和文化史）、短时段的事件史三者构成。布氏认为，事件的发生常由动态史的局势和节奏调节，而动态史又受环境的制约，故在研究中有重视长中时段而轻视事件史的倾向（恐怕也有改正传统历史主义专注重于事件的意思）。经济史属中时段史。宋代三百年，自然环境变迁不大，而事件甚繁，如与辽金之和战、厘定赋额（军需）、变法、迁都、引进占城稻、实行经界法和公田法等，都影响经济活动至巨。斯波先生在采用结构主义历史观时，对事件极为重视，这是实事求是的做法。
　　最后，布罗代尔的总体观察是基于他的多元时间论。人是生活在短时段的，生命有限；但同时也是在中时段和长时段之中，实际是“多元的我”。因此，考究 类社会的历史亦应从多元入手，层层相接，以收总体观察之效。不过这种方法，也常有叠床架屋，卷帙繁浩之虑。本书则是采取斯波先生所称“广义社会史学”的方法，提出从横向、纵向、多方位研究，并根据江南特点，综合出人口、社会流动、文化生态、经济生态、技术要素几个方面，应用有关的社会科学，进行史的分析。他把这种总体观察法形象地称为“人文科学者与社会科学者的学际对话”。这实际是一种新的方法，“有物有则”，并可收以简御繁之效。
　　区域史研究亦倡自法国年鉴学派，即所谓“空间史学”。然而斯波先生根据中国历史地理特点，创立了一套系统的区域史理论，道前人所未及，实在是本书的一大贡献。
　　首先，本书提出一种新的区域观。本书所称“地域偏差”即区域差异，已经超出了地理概念，毋宁说是历史形成的。斯波先生在“地域偏差问题”一节中列举了近二十位中外学者论述中国区域史的观点。从中我们可以看出：（1）依人口移动或定居史形成的区域差异；（2）依土地利用或水利史、农田开发史形成的区域差异；（3）依社会精英流动或文化生态史形成的区域差异；（4）依宗法、家族、阶级等社会组织变迁形成的区域差异；（5）依军事、政治或行政建置史形成的区域差异。以至作者在本书“前言”中说，“中国社会容量巨大，也许与其说时间的差异性大，还不如说空间的差异性更大。”区域史研究的重要意义，于兹可见。
　　其次，本书在地理概念上采取了西方学者通用的施坚雅（G.William Skinner）对中国经济区域划分的模型，但是作了修正和补充。他根据江南的开发史，重划其外围边界，调整了域内核心区和边缘地带的结构，重定江南在各大区中的地位。更重要的是，原来施坚雅的区域模型是以地文学（physiography）为基础，以晚清市场分布情况为参照的，因而是一种静态的模型，没有考虑上述多种区域差异的历史因素。宋代的江南，按照斯波先生的考察，尚属于它周期发展中的“始发阶段”（burgeoning stage），自难适用施氏对长江下游大区的规定性。因此，斯波先生引进了生态系（ecosystem）作为考察的依据。生态系是一个包括人的活动在内的动态系统。他又参考了已有较详细研究成果的泰国湄南河水稻田的开发和定居点由山地向中游、下游流域移动的历史。从而把水利史、人口移动、土地开发、文化生态史都纳入他江南区域的研究。这实在是区域史理论的一大创造。
　　最后，斯波先生在本书中提出了社会间比较（cross-societal comparison）和社会内比较（intra-societal comparison）的研究方法。不同于一般的比较研究，他是按一定的课题，选定可比的社会，从中积累经验的知识，用于整个区域研究。上述泰国湄南河稻作区的例子，即属于社会间比较。而更多的是社会内比较，即书中的个案考察和亚区域考察，几乎占到本书一半篇幅。例如杭州，重点在研究大城市内商业和等级居民形成的功能区划制度；湖州，重点是考察其长期性的生态变迁；徽州，重点在地理环境与经济活动的关系；江西袁州，重点在其水利合作组织的兴衰；宁波亚区域，以内外贸易为主；绍兴亚区域，以水利史为主。原来区域史的优势之一就是因为划定空间，可以放长时间，考察多重变迁和长期趋势。本书的个案和亚区域的研究，往往上溯汉唐，下伸至明清，这就给宋代江南的研究增加十分丰富的比较和论证的内容。
　　传统观点常把中国经济的发展看成是线性的，而地区差异乃是发展程度之不同，或是处于线性的不同阶梯。八十年代，美国一些汉学家提出一种新的观点，认为中国经济发展的趋向（trend）是线性的，而发展过程是周期性的，地区差异是结构的不同，并会有相反的运动，如某区是处于其周期的上升期，某区适处于其周期的下降期。这种研究方法称为“空间的时间的趋向和周期”（spatial and temporal trends and cycles）。1980年在北京召开的中国社会经济史讨论会上，郝若贝（Robert M.Hartwell）提出了一篇用这种方法研究的论文，后经修订补充，包括七个大区，于1982年在美国发表。施坚雅的著作中也有同样的观点。1984年在意大利贝拉丘（Bellagio）召开了以“空间的时间的趋向和周期”为主题的中国经济史讨论会，斯波义信教授提出了《江南农业与商业变迁》的论文。在这部《宋代江南经济史研究》中，他将该文修正，列入序章“社会之动态”节。
　　这种周期概念不是经济学中资本主义的商业周期（business cycles），也不同于熊彼特（Joseph A.Schumperel）的以创新论为基础的长周期（50-60年），而有点像布罗代尔的长周期（100年）。布罗代尔虽然是考察15-18世纪欧洲，包括地区（国家）差异，但基本上仍属资本主义运动。对中国经济的这种周期考察则主要是前资本主义时代，一般是10-20世纪。斯波先生在本书中的考察是960-1421年，即宋开国至明永乐初。他划分为七个时段，即（1）边境状态（开拓状态）；（2）上升始动期；（3）上升期；（4）实质成长期；（5）下降始动期；（6）下降期；（7）上升始动期；这七个时段完成一个400年的大周期。
　　原来关于经济周期的研究都是采用计量学方法，以见其升降幅度和平衡力量。这在缺乏统计资料的前资本主义时代颇为困难。我看最有成绩者当属厄什（Abbott P. Usher）、阿倍（Wilhelm Abel）等人利用价格资料所作14-18世纪欧洲农业的研究，明确得出两个下降期和两个上升期、各100年以上的农业周期。他们运用价格资料之技巧，有如化腐朽为神奇。但这是因为欧洲教会庄园的购买、出售、雇工等都逐笔记帐，可计出价格。中国没有这种资料，研究者是以人口及赋税为准。人口数不能直接反映经济盛衰，赋税常是定额，且数据不实，以之作计量分析往往不能令人信服。斯波先生在此项研究中，抛开计量主义，采取广义社会史学方法，以土地开发、生态演变、居民移动、商业交通、社会流动、户籍、税制等作综合考察。而对这些分散的史料，用政治史的创业、中兴、衰亡分期，以政权变动、战争与和议、变法、迁都、建置等系年，则眉目清楚，自成体系。实际上这些政治事件对经济的兴衰都影响很大的。又全文以叙事出之，类《通鉴》笔法，读之引人入胜。
　　前资本主义经济运动有无周期，在前述贝拉丘会议上亦有不同意见。盖周期运动必有其所以然的内在规律，此则研究者均未论及。故可不论周期，而称之为阶段。我国学者对于周期论比较生疏，有论者亦限于近代史。不过，历代经济有盛有衰，一地区之兴起常与他地区之衰落并行，则属史实。且不称之为周期，亦应考察其原委。在这种考察中，我以为斯波先生的广义社会史学和以政治史分期系年之法，都是很好的方法，他的上述著作，为我们提供了研究的范例。

斯波义信（Yoshinobu Shiba）教授长期执教于东京大学，是国际上享有盛名的汉学家，也是当代最有影响的宋史专家之一，他专攻宋代经济史、商业史、华侨史等领域。1968年他的著作《宋代商业史研究》 [1] 问世，一举成名，遂即被译为英文版和中文版。此后，其著作《宋代江南经济史研究》、《中国都市史》等著作均在国内出版了中文版。2003年他当选为日本学士院院士，是二战后日本第一位得到中国史博士学位的学者。并于2017年荣获日本文化勋章之殊荣。 [2]
波斯义信及其论著
波斯义信及其论著(3张)
出版著作
编辑
《宋代商业史研究》，(日)斯波义信 著，庄景辉 译，稻香出版社，1997年； [1]
《宋代江南经济史研究》，(日)斯波义信 著，方健、何忠礼 译，江苏人民出版社，2012年； [3]
《中国都市史》，(日)斯波义信 著，布和 译，北京大学出版社，2013年； [4]
获得奖项
编辑
荣获2018年第三届唐奖汉学奖。 [2]

[hankowbund]

美国女传教士被武汉三镇全景震撼

One of the most impressive sights in all China is the view from Han Yang Hill

One of the most impressive sights in all China is the view from Han Yang Hill. It is not remarkable for the beauty of its scenery although the low stretching hills, the chain of lakes and the winding Han flowing into the rushing yellow waters of the mighty Yangtze River at this point present an impressive panorama to the visitor. But the Hill is so situated that a birdseye of the three neighboring cities is given from its summit. …Immediately at one’s feet rise the great chimneys and flame forth the furnaces of the ironworks at Han Yang, the Pittsburgh of China. Across the narrow Han stretches the long flat city of Hankow, the great mart of trade. To the right beyond the broad Yangtze…lies the proud provincial capital, Wuchang. On the waters of the two rivers lie countless Chinese craft and on the latter go to and fro the great foreign river and ocean steamers and men-of-war.

McCook found herself in a bustling city where, she wrote her mother, “the streets… are no more than lanes, winding about among the houses which seem to have been in many cases set down directly across the natural line of travel… and the narrowness of the lanes is aggravated by the way everyone has of camping out anywhere he pleases to ply his trade.”


A Missionary to China

By Sarajane Cedrone on September 11, 2015 Uncategorized

By Elizabeth Norman SUMMER 2013

MTC 1In October 1899, right around her 30th birthday, Eliza Lydia McCook left her Hartford home to serve as an Episcopal missionary in China. She traveled half way around the world to a country that was experiencing political unrest. The Boxer Rebellion—a nationalist, anti-foreign, and anti-Christian political movement—would, six months later, challenge the weak Qing dynasty and the growing foreign presence in China. Though the uprising was repelled with the assistance of the U.S. and seven other countries with interests in China, it was just the beginning of decades of political upheaval that at times threatened her safety. Still, McCook spent the rest of her life as a missionary there, marrying and raising a family. Her frequent letters home provide us with a window on life in central China in the first decades of the 20th century.

McCook was born in the family home on Main Street in Hartford (now the Butler-McCook House & Garden, a museum operated by Connecticut Landmarks) on October 22, 1869. She was the daughter of Episcopal minister and Trinity College professor John J. McCook and Eliza Butler McCook. Hers was a close-knit family that included four brothers and two sisters. After graduating from Hartford Public High School, she taught high-school English and French.

McCook’s decision to uproot herself from Hartford and move halfway around the world may have been influenced, according to Ruth Schloss in an article published in The Connecticut Antiquarian (June 1980), by Maria Huntington, “an older woman and experienced missionary” who accompanied her to China. McCook joined a missionary movement at its zenith—a movement that had for 70 years sent men and women around the globe to convert the local people to Christianity and to “improve” their lot through education and medical aid. Catholic and Protestant churches from a half dozen countries worked in China until the Communist takeover there in 1949.

As China slowly opened up to the West in the late 19th century, the American missionary force expanded rapidly. According to Jane Hunter in The Gospel of Gentility: American Women Missionaries in Turn-of-the-Century China (Yale University Press, 1984), the number of missionaries in China “more than doubled between 1890 and 1905, and by 1919 had more than doubled again, to thirty-three hundred workers.” The number of single women in missionary work, she notes, had never been higher, “perhaps because the women’s mission movement offered respectable careers even to the pious daughters of clergymen” such as McCook. Women (both single and married), Hunter further notes, constituted a majority of missionary volunteers in that era, causing concern among church leaders that men would turn away from missionary work as “women’s work” and ensuring that women would prove “to be particularly persuasive voices in the crusade for American influence in China.”

MTC 2The McCooks were not happy with their daughter’s decision, according to Schloss. They worried about her health in a climate that was “cold and dank in winter and humid in summer” and where accommodations lacked central heating. Diseases such as malaria, typhoid fever, cholera, and tuberculosis were common.

The American Episcopal Church first sent missionaries to China in 1840 and by 1890 had established a medical school to train Chinese physicians in Shanghai, a college to train Chinese missionaries, and stations in four other cities (Wuchang, Hankow, Yantai, and Peking) that included churches, hospitals, and schools.

In December 1899, McCook arrived at the American Episcopal Mission in Wuchang (today Wuhan) in central China, more than 500 miles up the Yangtze River from the mission’s headquarters in Shanghai. It was an important junction on the railway from Peking (now Beijing) in the north to Guangzhou in the south. Missionaries Arthur Gray and Arthur Sherman in The Story of the Church in China (The Domestic and Foreign Missionary Society, 1913) described Wuchang, c. 1890, this way:


One of the most impressive sights in all China is the view from Han Yang Hill. It is not remarkable for the beauty of its scenery although the low stretching hills, the chain of lakes and the winding Han flowing into the rushing yellow waters of the mighty Yangtze River at this point present an impressive panorama to the visitor. But the Hill is so situated that a birdseye of the three neighboring cities is given from its summit. …Immediately at one’s feet rise the great chimneys and flame forth the furnaces of the ironworks at Han Yang, the Pittsburgh of China. Across the narrow Han stretches the long flat city of Hankow, the great mart of trade. To the right beyond the broad Yangtze…lies the proud provincial capital, Wuchang. On the waters of the two rivers lie countless Chinese craft and on the latter go to and fro the great foreign river and ocean steamers and men-of-war.

McCook found herself in a bustling city where, she wrote her mother, “the streets… are no more than lanes, winding about among the houses which seem to have been in many cases set down directly across the natural line of travel… and the narrowness of the lanes is aggravated by the way everyone has of camping out anywhere he pleases to ply his trade.”

The Episcopal mission stations in Wuchang and Hankow consisted of several day and boarding schools for boys and girls (Chinese girls traditionally were not educated), multiple hospitals, and dispensaries along with housing for staff of no more than a dozen missionaries. They, in turn, supported mission outposts in the countryside. McCook began by teaching Chinese boys and studying the language.

The following June, she wrote to her family about the Boxer Rebellion:


“China is no doubt in an unsettled condition, but as Bishop Graves wrote in a letter to me … ‘the Yangtse Valley is undoubtedly the safest place in the country’… The society called the Ta Tao Huei (Big Knife Society) or Boxers, has been so long tolerated by the Empress…that it has grown very bold and powerful, and has of late even attacked and (I think) killed a few foreigners. This, you see, is all in Pekin[sic]. As to how far it has spread through China I cannot say, but we have not yet heard of anything serious in this neighborhood.… Remember…that Pekin is halfway across this great empire from us, in a country where communication is very slow with no newspapers to act as fire-feeders and with a population far less homogenous than ours…. Everything goes on just as usual in the Compound—lessons, study, church, exercise— except that we don’t go out so much without escort and I don’t think one of us is frightened. Certainly I’m not…”

MTC 3Just a week later, however, she moved across the Yangtze to Hankow, having received “news of some signs of uneasiness among a certain section of the people in this neighborhood.” (July 1, 1900). Hankow, a “treaty-port, is always the safest place because of the large foreign-built and guarded concession and Hankow with its foreign volunteers drilling and standing guard, and the English gunboats always on hand, is probably the safest place on the Yangtze,” she wrote to her family. She continued, “When I read, as I did in a ‘Courant’ Bess Morgan sent me…dated May 11, that many missionaries and 100 or so native Christians [Chinese Christians] had been killed in one encounter in China…I groan to think that I can’t afford a daily cablegram. I can only hope you have faith.” She may not have been well informed, however, as she and four other female missionaries soon were sent to Shanghai forsafety. In a letter dated July 5,she wrote, “This morning we learn[ed]that the American Ambassador at Pekin has been killed. Perhaps it is only a rumor. We shall stay in Shanghai [at the Episcopal Mission]… If there is trouble there we might be moved on to Japan.” A postscript read, “tonight start for Japan.”

Rev. Logan Roots, a missionary in Hankow whom McCook would later marry, wrote in a letter to his mother (July 27, 1900):


“We are standing face to face with issues of the most far-reaching import. The fact that for the first time in the history of our mission in this region all the country work has been abandoned, and even Wuchang, with its school, hospitals, buildings of all sorts and thousands of dollars worth of property— books and furnishings and personal property—to say nothing of its young native Christians—the fact that all these are now abandoned and left without even a gatekeeper, and turned over to the Chinese officials is only a small indication of the vast change and the troublous times which are ahead of us.”

MTC 6In all, as many as 180 foreign missionaries and hundreds of Chinese Christians were killed, primarily in the north, before the rebellion was subdued. McCook remained in Japan for three months before moving back to Shanghai. In February 1901 she returned to Hankow, her permanent post, where she was placed in charge of women’s education and reform. It began a period of growth for the mission’s schools as the Chinese realized that they could no longer isolate themselves from Western ways. Of the Chinese women, McCook wrote:


“I believe that learning a little will waken them from the stolid, stupid lethargy into which the women fall almost as soon as they are married … It will increase their self respect as well as the respect of their husbands for them, and will, I hope, pave the way as well to unbinding their feet and other desirable reforms.”

MTC 3The following summer, Logan Roots proposed marriage to McCook. Roots was born in Illinois on July 27, 1870 but raised in Little Rock, Arkansas. He graduated from Harvard College and the Episcopal Theological Seminary in Cambridge, Massachusetts. After being ordained in the American Episcopal Church, he was sent to Hankow in 1896. Before they could be married, McCook had to apply to be released from her contract to serve the church mission as a single woman.

The not-so-young couple (McCook was 32 and Roots 31) married on April 17, 1902 in Hankow. Only their church “family” was present. Two years later, during theirfirst furlough to the United States, the Hartford McCooks finally met Eliza’s new husband and the couple’s infant son John. The Roots would have four more children, all born in China—and all while Logan was away on church business. While in the United States in 1904, Logan was consecrated Bishop of Hankow (one of two bishops overseeing the mission’s two districts in China), a post he would hold for 34 years

Life in China was hectic for the Roots family, revolving around church work and travel, constant hosting duties as leaders of the district church, and the demands of rearing five young children. Eliza homeschooled her children until the three boys were sent to the Kent School in Connecticut, while both daughters would attend the newly created Kuling American School, for which Eliza served as acting principal in 1924.

While she raised her family and fulfilled her duties as the bishop’s wife, Eliza continued to be involved in women’s reform. As noted in a survey she helped develop in 1909 to gain “a more scientific knowledge of conditions which surround us,” issues of concern included cigarette and opium smoking and drinking among Chinese women and girls, gambling, enslavement of young girls, prostitution, “concubinage, or the taking of secondary wives, destruction or abandonment of girl babies,” and foot-binding.

MTC 4
Hankow, Hanyang, and Wuchang (now Wuhan), 1915.

The years leading up to the Revolution of 1911, which resulted in the creation of the Republic of China in 1912, brought political unrest and violence close to home once more. Son John McCook Roots wrote (in Chou: An Informal Biography of China’s Legendary Chou En Lai, Doubleday, 1978) that a bomb stored by revolutionaries exploded just 300 yards from his parents’ home. Much of the revolutionary activity was centered in southern China and finally erupted in Wuchang on October 11, 1911. Hankow was a main battlefield for two months, during which time a large part of the city burned, according to Gray and Sherman. The mission’s St. Paul’s Cathedral became a temporary hospital to treat the wounded. This time, the Roots family did not evacuate. Eliza wrote, “It is certainly one of the most remarkable revolutions of history and we have been at the heart of it.” Both Eliza and Logan were active in relief work, according to Schloss. Logan was chairman of the Famine Relief Executive Committee, and Eliza organized Red Cross work and a sewing workshop for Chinese women to make bedding and clothing for soldiers.

Revolutionary Sun Yat Sen was elected provisional leader of the new Republic of China in December 1911, and Emperor Puyi abdicated the throne two months later. In a letter home dated December 1911, Eliza asked, “What do you think of the election of a reputed Christian [Sun Yat-Sen had been raised in Hawaii, educated in Christian schools, and baptized] … to be the head of a Chinese Republic? Are we dreaming, or is this the same old China that has let a Manchu dynasty egg it on to kill Christians for the last 100 years or more? … But we do believe in the Chinese … & we feel sure that in some way, sometime, they will be able to work out their salvation along the lines of a Republic.” In 1913, Eliza was awarded a medal by General Li, vice president of the new government.

After a period of quiet during World War I, the 1920s saw political conflict between the Kuomintang (KMT), the growing Communist movement, and the government in Peking. In 1925, the “Hankow Incident” caused the Roots family to flee for safety to its country home in Kuling. Eliza wrote her sister of missionaries who had, over the course of a number of weeks, been “chased and stoned, …Some of them are feeling discouraged after years of work… Unfortunately for China, the country is so disunited and the heartless, money-grubbing militarists are so completely in the saddle that even her [China’s] best friends can’t see salvation for her.”

After a visit to the U.S. in 1926 and 1927, Eliza and her youngest daughter Elizabeth tried, against her family’s wishes, to return to China. (The rest of the children remained in school in the U.S.) But fighting centered in Wuchang between the KMT and that group’s former Communist allies kept them in Japan. That violence “probably…[by]members of the communist wing who had been directed to loot and kill foreigners,” she wrote, led to the murder of a personal friend. Logan, who had remained in Hankow, wrote to Eliza in April that he felt the “madness which has beset … the Kuomintang … of late is abating and there may be a reshift soon which will bring some saner elements into power and allow … that you may even come back to Hankow.” By June, mother and daughter had returned. Chiang Kai-shek, Sun Yat-Sen’s successor and leader of the KMT, emerged as the leader of China.MTC 5

Eliza’s health began to decline in the late 1920s. In the early 1930s, several of her children, having completed their schooling in the United States, came to take up adult careers in China—even as the Communist threat and unrest increased. Her daughter Frances, a graduate of Mount Holyoke College, returned in 1932 to teach in Wuchang. Her son Logan, a physician, returned to Peking to study the language so he could practice medicine there. He was married in Kuling in 1933; Madame Chiang Kai-shek attended. Eliza was diagnosed with tuberculosis in 1934 and died in Kuling on August 4, 1934 with her son Logan and daughters Frances and Elizabeth by her side. She was 63. Her husband and sons John and Sheldon arrived a few days later en route from London via a special plane from Shanghai arranged by General and Mme. Chiang Kai-shek.

Logan Roots retired in 1937 and left Hankow with his daughter Frances in 1938 as World War II closed in. Having retired to Mackinac Island, Michigan, he died and was buried there in 1945.
MTC 6Eliza McCook Roots experienced China during a period of great change as China moved from centuries of dynastic rule through the brief era of the Republic of China to the Communist takeover. The twin Western forces of commercial interest and Christian missionary zeal forced political, economic, and cultural modernization in China, with both positive and negative repercussions. Throughout, Eliza and her family steadfastly continued their work with the conviction that Christianity and education would uplift and empower Eliza McCook, Hankow, China 1902, the most downtrodden of Chinese society.

[hankowbund]

“1900年汉口是百万人口大城市，中国的商业中心，中国最大的商业帆船中心。”

1898：一個英國女人眼中的中國

作者： （英）伊莎貝拉·伯德著
出版社：湖北人民出版社
出版日期：2007/01/01
語言：簡體中文

本書的英文名為The Yangtze Valley and Beyond(《揚子江流域及以外地區》)，是英國旅行家伊莎貝拉·伯德(Isabella Bird 1831～1904)在中國的游記，這是她在長江流域及川藏地區進行了實地考察，向英國教會和商業集團提供的關於大不列顛這片「勢力范圍」的第一手信息。譯者將其名為《1898：一個英國女人眼中的中國》意在使人一看就知道是本百年前的老書，內容涉及到中國的晚清社會。

《1898：一個英國女人眼中的中國》曾被評論家譽為「十九世紀末，一本最耀眼的，徹底證明中國價值的書」。今天翻譯此書，希望能夠為治中國近代史者，提供一些資料，而對於進一步了解和掌握中國國情，也具有積極的現實意義。

CHAPTER VII.

CHINESE HANKOW (HANKAU)

IT is a short step from the stately dulness of the bund to the
crowds, colour, and noise of the native city — the " Million-
peopled City,*' the commercial centre of China, the greatest
"distributing point" in the empire, the centre of the tea trade,
which has fallen practically into Russian hands, and the greatest
junk port in China.

Enormous quantities of goods are everywhere waiting for
transit, for Hankow is the greatest distributing centre in China,
and the big steamers lying at the bund, or at anchor in the
stream, and the thousand junks which crowd the waterways, seem
barely sufficient for her gigantic commerce.

No junks interested me more than the great passage and salt
boats, from seventy to one hundred tons burthen, with their lofty,
many-windowed sterns like the galleys of Henry IV., their tall
single masts and their big brown-umber sails of knitted cane or
coarse canvas extended by an arrangement of bamboo, looking
heavy enough to capsize a liner, and with hulls stained and
oiled into the similitude of varnished pine, as coming from that
Upper Yangtze for which I was bound. There were huge junks
from the Fukien province, bringing to me recollections of Foochow
and the Min river, piled high with bamboos and poles, and
extended to a preposterous width by masses of the same lashed
on both sides, the buoyancy of the cargo permitting as little as
five inches of freeboard, gaily painted and decorated junks from
Canton, with rows of carefully tended plants on their high sterns,
sombre craft from Tientsin and the north, junks from the Po-
yang and Tungting lakes, nondescript craft from inland streams
and canals, alert tenders to the big junks, lorchas, some of them
foreign-owned, doing homage to Chinese nautical experience by
their Chinese rig, rafts, with their inhabitants, sampans of all sizes,
and huge junks heavily laden, crawling slowly down stream with
their great sweeps, and the wild melancholy wail of the oarsmen —
the Argonauts of Swatow or Ningpo.

Hankow has eight regular guilds, which are banks and cash shops,
rice and grain dealers, clothiers and mercers, grocers and oilmen,
ironmasters, wholesale dealers in copper and metals, dealers in
KlANGSl china, and wholesale druggists, Hankow having one of the
largest and best drug markets in China. It would be well if we
realised the extreme importance of these and similar trade organi-
sations. We may talk of spheres of interest and influence, and
make commercial treaties giving us the advantages of the " most
favoured nation " clause ; but till we understand the power of the
guilds, and can cope with them on terms of equality, and are " up
to Chinese methods of business," we shall continue to see what we
are now seeing at Hankow and elsewhere, which I have already
alluded to. There is much that is admirable in these guilds, and
their trades-unionism, combinations, and systems of terrorism are
as perfect as any machinery of the same kind in England. In
any matters affecting the joint interests of a trade, the members
or their delegates meet and consult The rules of guilds are both
light and severe, and no infringement of them is permitted with-
out a corresponding penalty ; these penalties vary from a feast
and a theatrical entertainment being inflicted on the guilty person
to expulsion from the guild in a flagrant case, which means the
commercial ruin of the offender.

In a treaty port which has been open for thirty-nine years, and
which in 1898 had a net import trade of ;f 3,422,669, and a net
export trade of ;^4,643,048, and of which, so far as the import of
foreign goods is concerned, the British share is one-half, the
stranger naturally expects to find British merchants piling up
big fortunes, and the size and stateliness of the houses on the
bund gives colour to this expectation.

But, in fact, while the British firms in Hankow are merely
branches of houses in Shanghai, their Chinese rivals, who have
driven them out of the import trade, are Hankow merchants
with branches in Shanghai. There are about eleven of these
big native firms which supply the Hankow market with British
cotton goods, and which have risen on the ruins of British com-
petitors. These wealthy firms, dealing wholesale, supply the up-
country merchants and local shopkeepers, buying goods through
their branches in Shanghai, which employ Chinese brokers speaking
" pidgun " English to buy the particular goods they want from the
foreign importers. They keep well up to date regarding Shanghai
auction sales, of which they get catalogues in Chinese, and are
quick to seize on every small advantage. The British merchant
was shortsighted enough totally to neglect to open up direct
business relations with the up-country merchants, and was content
to deal entirely with the Hankow native importer, to whom he left
all the advantages of local connection and knowledge.*

Hankow is the most westerly port in which the Mexican dollar
IS actually current, and even in its back country copper cash are
preferred to either coined or uncoined silver. For western travel,
over and above any amount of cash which the traveller can burden
himself with, " sycee " silver is necessary, which can be obtained
from the agency of the Hong Kong and Shanghai Bank, as well
as " good paper " — Chinese drafts on Chinese merchants of repute
in the far west. Silver "shoes," as the uncouth lumps of silver
obtained from the banks are called, are worth about fifty taels,
but the tael itself is not of fixed value, the Haikwan tael, in
which the Customs and some other accounts are kept, varying
from the Shanghai tael, and that again from the Hankow tael,
and so on.

The glory of Hankow, as well as its terror, is the magnificent
Yangtze, nearly a mile wide even in winter, rolling majestically
past the bund, lashed into a dangerous fury by storms, or careering
buoyantly before breezes ; in summer, an inland sea fifty feet deep.
In July and early August Hankow is at its worst, and the rise of
the river is watched with much anxiety. The bund is occasionally
submerged, boats ply between houses and offices, the foundations
of buildings are softened, exercise is suspended, gardens are de-
stroyed, much business stands still, frail native houses are swept
away — as many of those perched on piles were, with much loss
of life, in the summer rise of 1898 — and thousands are deprived
of shelter and livelihood, and when the water falls widespread
distress and a malarious film of mud are left behind. The ap-
pearance of the SZE Chuan water, the red product of the " Red
Basin" of Richthofen, indicates to the Chinese intelligence the
approaching subsidence of the water, and points to a fact of some
scientific interest. During the ordinary summer rise the whole
region, viewed from Pagoda Hill, has the dismal aspect of a
turbid, swirling inland sea, above which many villages with trees
appear, built on mounds, probably of ancient construction.

Hankow considers that it has the finest bund in China, and
I have no wish to dispute its assertion. In truth its length of
800 yards, its breadth of 80, its lofty and noble river wall and
fine flights of stone stairs, ascending 40 feet from low water, its
broad promenade and carriage-way and avenue of fine trees, with
the "palatial" houses, very similar to those of Shanghai and
Singapore, on the other side in large gardens and shaded by
exotic trees, make it scarcely credible that the first authentic
visit of Europeans to the city was that made by Lord Elgin in
H.M.S. Furious in 1858, and that the site for this stately British
settlement was only chosen in 1861, the year in which the port
was opened to foreign trade.

(Shanghai) A great trading Chinese city, with an estimated population of
200,000, has grown up within the foreign boundary, subject to foreign
municipal laws and sanitary regulations, but so absolutely Chinese,
that were it not for the wide streets and the absence of refuse-heaps
and bad smells, one might think oneself in one of the great cities
of the interior. The Chinese are quite capable of appreciating the
comfort and equity of foreign rule, and the various advantages
which they enjoy under it. They pay municipal taxes according
to their rating, and "feu duty" for their land, which it is usual
for them to hold in the name of a foreigner. They are under
the jurisdiction of the Chinese Government, but civil cases in which
foreigners are concerned and breaches of the peace are tried
in what is known as the " Mixed Court," an apparently satis-
factory and workable arrangement, and serious criminal cases
belong to the Chinese Shanghai magistrate.

[hankowbund]

“Take a walk with me, for instance, through the streets of Hankow. It contains a million people. It is as big as Chicago. It is surrounded by a wall as high as a three-story house, and so wide that three railroad trains could run side by side upon it without touching.”


A WALK THROUGH HANKOW. Queer Experiences of an American in China's Greatest City.

San Francisco Call, Volume 77, Number 125, 14 April 1895

A WALK THROUGH HANKOW.

Queer Experiences of an American in China's Greatest City. No Lamps Along the Narrow Thoroughfares, No Carts and No Carriages.

The close of the present war may bring about an era of travel and exploration in China. As it is many great cities of the Empire have never been visited by foreigners. There are certain provinces, containing more people than the whole United States, in which it has always been unsafe to travel, and there are hundreds of curious tribes and clans which are practically unknown to the people of the Western World. Take, for instance, the Hakkas. How many Americans have heard of them? The ordinary Chinese cannot understand them and still they live here and there all over China and have villages and customs of their own. They do not bind their feet. They wear broad-brimmed hats instead of caps and the children wear rings of silver around their necks. There are clans in China who do nothing but beg, and there are other clans who are thieves from generation to generation. Who has ever written up the porcelain districts of China, and how little information we have about the provinces bordering on Burmah and Thibet? Numerous description? of Chinese cities have been published, but these are xisually from travelers who have been carried rapidly through Shanghai and Canton. They will tell you that all Chinese cities are the same, whereas, the fact is, the Chinese towns differ as much as our American cities, and every great center I have visited I have found full of strange things, which I 6aw nowhere else. Take a walk with me, for instance, through the streets of Hankow. It contains a million people. It is as big as Chicago. It is surrounded by a wall as high as a three-story house, and so wide that three railroad trains could run side by side upon it without touching. Inside these walls there is a mass of narrow streets, lined with one, two and three storied houses. Cutting through these there are lanes and cross-etreets, and most of the streets are six feet wide. The lanes are often not more than two feet wide, and both streets and alleys are covered with the vilest of slime, ana you pick your way through a mass of indescribable filth as you go through them. The widest of the streets are the great business thoroughfares, walled with stores and shops, and which are packed with a mass of Chinese humanity from sunrise until dark. The mass surges this way and that. It is worse than a jam at a country fair, and laborers, carrying all kinds of wares, push their way through it. The narrower streets are little more than alleys walled with houses, comprising factories, dwellings and business establishments. The entrances to many of these are merely holes in the walls. Others have wide doors leading into courts, and others introduce you into the shops of mechanics, where you see half-naked coolies doing the thousand and one things of a busy Chinese city. Walking through these lanes the foreigner seems to be taking his life in his hands. The streets are so narrow that you can stand in the middle and press the opposite walls wifh your hands. Two men can hardly pass, and you instinctively squeeze yourself to tighten your skin and keep ont of the collisions which appear imminent at every curve. Here comes a coolie, bareDacketl and barelegged. He is one of the thousand slop-carriers of the town. A bar six feet long rests upon his shoulder, and from the, ends of this hang two great buckets, each holding four gallons of the vilest of slop. He comes toward you on a swinging trot, and the buckets

screw up and down and the slop splashes I to and fro as he passes you. You put your smelling-bottle to your nose, draw your knees close together and hug the wall to let him go by. Behind him come two scowling Chinamen carrying hides. They have a half ton of raw skins swung in the center of a pole, which rests upon their shoulders, and they grunt and grunt in harmony of woe as they rush toward you. Other laborers behind follow with other loads, and you note that every couple has its own peculiar grunt or sound. Some cry: "O-ah, o-ah, e-he, e-he, o-ho, o-ho, e-he." The men on the wharves have their own grunt, and even men working alone make spasmodic noises of the most horrible kinds to help them in their work.

The Chinese have no such thing as baked bread. They boil their dough, and you can get boiled biscuits almost anywhere. They are great on frying dough in grease, and Sorth China may be called the land of the doughnut. It is the general opinion that the Chinese live almost entirely upon rice. This is a great mistake. Rice is expensive everywhere, and the people of the north are too poor to eat it. They use millet seed and sorghum seed, which are ground up like we grind wheat. Rice is the bread of South China, and pork is the chief meat all over the empire. The average Chinese bog is the dirtiest animal in the world. It gets its living off the foul refuse of the city's streets, and the biggest of the Chinese cities permit the pigs to run wild within them. There are different grades of pork in China, as there are in America, ana the finest kind of pork comes from an island south of Hongkong. The pigs here are fed upon chestnuts. They are shipped to all parts of China, and they bring high prices. The better class of Chinese will not touch rats, and dogs are usually eaten by the well-to-do Chinese only as medicine. Sucking pigs form a part of each big feast, bur they are brought on the table cut up into little cubes, so that they can be eaten with chopsticks. The Chinese are fond of some kinds of worms, and there is a greenish brown worm, which comes from the rice fields, which brings high prices in the markets. They eat silkworm grubs, and in some parts of the empire the poorer people eat snakes. In Amoy and Swatow snakes are sold for food and they are used to make soup. They are quite expensive, and a good-sized snake of the right variety will will bring 75 cents. I found the Chinese restaurants well patronized, and there are peddling cooks everywhere. The average laborer buys his lunch where he works if he belongs to the cities, and wherever there is a band of workmen you will find from one to a dozen lunch-peddlers. It is the same as to smoking. On nearly every corner you find a table with a lot of pipes upon it, and a man standing beside it ready to rent them out for a fraction of a cent a smoke. The pipes are made of copper and they are a sort of a water pipe, with which you draw the smoke through the water before it comes into your mouth. The bowls hold about a thimbleful of tobacco, and the pipe has to be lighted about every two minutes. Of late years the Chinese of the seaports have taken to smoking cigarettes, and you find great quantities of American cigarettes consumed in Shanghai and Canton.

In ray walks through the Chinese cities the things tnat impressed me the most were the things that I did not see. I looked in vain for street lamps. There was no sign of sewerage, and the public buildings were more like stables than anything else. The only tire preventives were wells which had been due here and there, and which were kept full in order to use in case of conflagrations, and great clay jars which were f laced on the roofs of some of the houses, was told that the houses were numbered, and at the corners I saw characters which gave a description or census of the families in the neighborhood. Most of the streets of the cities which I visited outside of Peking were paved with stone, which had been worn smooth by the bare and shod feet of a thousand generations of human beings. Outside of the hogs and the dogs, you see few animals in one of these big towns. There are no carts and no carriages. The men ride through the streets in chairs, and the merchandise is carried by men or pushed and dragged through the city in

wheelbarrows. There are no statues or public squares, except here and there where a place may nave been left for a market.

There are no telegraph lines and no tall buildings. The roofs are of heavy black tiles, and most of the city houses are built of blue brick with a foundation of stone. I saw no signs of cellars, though under some of the streets there are drains and some have cutters. Both drains and guttors are usually stopped up, and they form the breeding places for disease and bad smells. The filth of a Chinese city is in fact beyond description. Peking is worse than a "barnyard, and the vilest cowyard in America is cleaner than the mud through which you wade in walking through Hankow. You have to keep your eyes on your feet, and there is no Done factory in the United States which surpasses the smell arising from the. streets on a wet day, Here and there along the business streets or in the side streets, just off the most thronged parts of the city, you will pass great vats splashed with the vilest of dirt. There are public waterciosets. They are owned by private parties, who grow rich by selling the sewerage to the farmers. You go on and on through scenes like those I have described until you can stand it no longer, and give your guide directions to hurry you back to your hotel.

Copyright, 1895.

[hankowbund]

1922 Encyclopædia Britannica/Hankow
帖子 由 hankow » 周二 7月 16, 2019 3:45 am

HANKOW, China (see 12.919). At the mouth of the Han river a great commercial entrepôt is provided for China by the three large cities, Hankow, Hanyang and Wuchang, at the point where the Han flows into the Yangtsze. Prior to the commencement of disorder in 1911 the development of railway communications in the interior of China had largely increased the wealth and importance of this great distributing centre. Hankow, on the N. bank of the Yangtsze, is the terminus of the completed Peking-Hankow trunk line, and Wuchang, on the S. bank, the terminus of the line, in process of construction, from Canton. But during the turmoil of the revolution, and on more than one occasion thereafter, Hankow suffered materially because of its strategical importance to the contending factions. On Nov. 1 1911 two-thirds of the city was destroyed by fire as the result of a bombardment by the imperialists; nevertheless, the population of the three cities united was reckoned by the Maritime Customs in 1916 at 1,321,280 and in 1920 at about 1,500,000.

The black-tea trade, Hankow's staple industry in former days, declined steadily between 1915 and 1920, partly because of the competition of Indian and Ceylon teas, but chiefly because of the elimination of the Russian buyer — the total amount of black leaf shipped abroad from China in 1919 being 288,398 piculs, as against 771,141 piculs in 1915. But in other directions the trade of the port expanded steadily, in spite of political excursions and alarms; its net value in 1919 was 200 million taels, as against 170 millions in 1917. The industrial development of the district, increasingly active after the conclusion of the World War, was reflected in a large demand for machinery and plant for new factories. In 1919 Hankow-milled yarn was selling at a higher price than yarn imported from Japan. The export trade in wood-oil and sesamum-seed, of which Hankow is the chief centre, increased very rapidly.

The number of residents in the British Concession recorded by the census of 1920 included 163 British and 341 Japanese out of a total of 678. The German Concession, like that at Tientsin, was taken over by the Chinese authorities after China's declaration of war on the side of the Allies; early in 1920 it was understood that Japan was negotiating with the Chinese Government to acquire it by purchase.